Josephson Institute of Ethics Releases Study on High School Character and Adult Conduct
Character Study Reveals Predictors of Lying and Cheating
October 29, 2009 — For immediate release
Contact: Rich Jarc,
Josephson Institute Executive Director
rjarc@jiethics.org | 310-437-0827
- The hole in the moral ozone seems to be getting bigger — each new generation is more likely to lie and cheat than the preceding one.
- Young people are much more cynical than their elders – they are considerably more likely to believe that it is necessary to lie or cheat in order to succeed. Those who believe dishonesty is necessary are more likely to actually lie and cheat.
- Cheaters in high school are far more likely as adults to lie to their spouses, customers and employers and to cheat on expense reports and insurance claims.
WASHINGTON, D.C. – The Josephson Institute of Ethics today released the findings of the first-ever large-scale study of the relationship between high school attitudes and behavior and later adult conduct. The survey found that current age and attitudes about the need to cheat and actual high school cheating are significant predictors of lying and cheating across a wide range of adult situations.
The report is based on 6,930 respondents in five age groups (17 and under, 18-24, 25-40, 41-50, and over 50) and is released in conjunction with National CHARACTER COUNTS! Week, which focuses attention on the importance teaching core values and developing character in young people. The margin of error varies on each item but ranges between plus/minus 1-2 percent.
Since 1992, the Josephson Institute of Ethics has issued a biennial report on the ethics of American high school students, which has revealed significant erosion of values including high levels of dishonesty (cheating, lying, and theft). The 2008 report showed that during that year 64% cheated on an exam, 42% lied to save money, and 30% stole something from a store. Some dismissed that data on the grounds that kids will be kids and will outgrow such character deficiencies. This new study reveals a close connection between youthful attitudes and behavior and continuing patterns of dishonesty as young people enter the adult world.
“This study confirms unequivocally that character counts now and in the future and that values and habits formed in school persist,” said Michael Josephson, founder and CEO of the Josephson Institute of Ethics. “That’s why more than 90% of survey respondents said they believe schools should be more active in instilling core ethical values like honesty, responsibility, and respect and developing good character in children. Our CHARACTER COUNTS! initiative currently reaches more than 7 million children and their families with specific strategies that build good character based on six universal ethical values (trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship) called the Six Pillars of Character.”
MAJOR CONCLUSIONS FROM THE SURVEY
Age matters – The most emphatic finding is that younger generations are significantly more likely to engage in dishonest conduct than those in older cohorts:
- Teens 17 or under are five times more likely than those over 50 to hold the cynical belief that lying and cheating are necessary to succeed (51% v 10%), nearly four times as likely to deceive their boss (31% v. 8%), more than three times as likely to keep change mistakenly given to them (49% v. 15%), and more than three times as likely to believe it’s okay to lie to get a child into a better school (38% v. 11%).
- Young adults (18-24) are more than three times more likely to have inflated an insurance claim than those over 40 (7% vs. 2%) and more than twice as likely to lie to their spouse, boyfriend, girlfriend, or partner about something significant (48% v. 18%).
Attitude matters – Regardless of age, people who believe lying and cheating are a necessary part of success (the report calls them cynics) are more likely to lie and cheat. In fact, t his belief is one of the most significant and reliable predictors of dishonest behavior in the adult world. Cynics are:
- Three times more likely to lie to a customer (22% vs. 7%), inflate an expense claim (13% v. 4%), or inflate an insurance claim (6% vs. 2%).
- More than twice as likely to conceal or distort information when communicating with their boss (24% vs. 10%).
- Twice as likely to lie to their spouse or significant other about something important (45% vs. 22%) or to keep change given by mistake (32% vs. 16%) and one-and-a half-times more likely to cheat on their taxes (20% vs. 13%).
High school character matters – Regardless of current age, people who cheated on exams in high school two or more times are considerably more likely to be dishonest later in life. Compared to those who never cheated, hi gh school cheaters are:
- Three times more likely to lie to a customer (20% vs. 6%) or inflate an insurance claim (6% vs. 2%) and more than twice as likely to inflate an expense claim (10% vs. 4%).
- Twice as likely to lie to or deceive their boss (20% vs. 10%) or lie about their address to get a child into a better school (29% vs. 15%) and one-and-a-half times more likely to lie to spouse or significant other (35% vs. 22%) or cheat on taxes (18% vs. 13%).
About the Josephson Institute of Ethics
The nonprofit Josephson Institute of Ethics, a nonpartisan, nonsectarian 501(c)(3) organization based in Los Angeles , CA , created and administers the CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, a partnership of more than 900 educational and youth-serving organizations committed to improving the ethical quality of America ’s young people through character development. CHARACTER COUNTS! is the nation’s most widely implemented approach to character development. An extensive library of materials for teachers, parents, coaches, and others interested in character development as well as transcripts of Michael Josephson’s daily radio commentaries are available at CharacterCounts.org.
A Study of Values and Behavior Concerning Integrity:
The Impact of Age, Cynicism and High School Character
A Report of the Josephson Institute of Ethics 2009
See below for methodology and validity discussion.
KEY FINDINGS
Percentage who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed::
- Age: 17 or under (51%); 18-24 (36%); 25-40 (18%); 41-50 (11%); Over 50 (10%). Teens are five times and young adults (18-24) are three times more likely than those over 40 to hold the cynical belief that lying and cheating is necessary to success. This belief is one of the most significant and reliable predictors of dishonest behavior in the adult world.
- Gender: Males are more cynical than females (17% v. 13%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less cynical than those who say religion is unimportant (13% v. 18%).
- Occupation:
Sales 23%
Journalist 22%
Lawyer 20%
Clerical 16%
Entertainment industry 14%
Law enforcement 13%
Engineer 13%
Banking 12%
Management-Private 11%
Real estate 10%
Management-Public 11%
Business owner 11%
Educator 11%
Physician 6%
Percentage who said they were willing to lie about their address to get a child into a better school:
- Age: 17 or under (63%); 18-24 (38%); 25-40 (24%); 41-50 (15%); Over 50 (11%). Young adults 18-24 are three and a half times more likely than those over 50 believe it is okay to lie to get a child in a better school.
- Attitude: Regardless of age, those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are nearly three times more likely to lie about a child’s age than others (41% v. 14%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are twice as likely to lie as others (9% v. 15%).
- Gender: Males and females are equally likely to lie about a child’s address (18%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are significantly less likely to lie than those who say religion is unimportant (16% v.25%).
- Occupation:
Sales 23%
Real estate 23%
Entertainment industry 21%
Banking 19%
Clerical 18%
Management-Public 18%
Business owner 17%
Youth nonprofit 17%
Engineer 16%
Management-Private 16%
Law enforcement 15%
Lawyer 15%
Educator 12%
Homemaker 10%
Physician 10%
Media 10%
Clergy 7%
Percentage who lied to a spouse, boyfriend, girlfriend or significant other about something significant in the past year:
- Age: 18-24 (48%); 25-40 (34%); 41-50 (22%); Over 50 (18%). About half of young adults 18-24 lied to their spouse or significant other about something significant in the past year. This is more than twice as often as those over 40.
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are twice as likely to lie in important relationships as those who are not cynical (45% v. 22%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are one and a half times more likely to lie as those who did not cheat (35% v. 22%)
- Gender: There is no significant difference between males and females when it comes to lying in relationships (27% v. 25%).
- Religious Beliefs: There is no significant difference between those who say religion is important to them and those who do not when it comes to lying in relationships (26% v. 25%).
Percentage who inflated an expense claim for reimbursement:
- Age: 18-24 (8%); 25-40 (7%); 41-50 (5%); Over 50 (5%).
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are three times more likely to inflate and expense claim (13% v. 4%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are two and a half times more likely to lie on an expense claim (10% vs. 4%).
- Gender: Males are significantly more likely to inflate expense claims than females (7% vs. 4%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are just as likely to inflate an expense claim as others (6%).
- Occupation:
Real estate 15%
Banking 9%
Sales 9%
Student 8%
Media 8%
Business owner 7%
Management-Public 7%
Engineer 6%
Management-Private 6%
Physician 5%
Law enforcement 5%
Lawyer 5%
Percentage who inflated an insurance claim in past five years:
- Age: 18-24 (7%); 25-40 (3%); 41-50 (2%); Over 50 (2%). Young adults (18-24) are more than three times more likely to have inflated an insurance claim those over 40.
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are three times more likely to cheat an insurance company (6% v. 2%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are three times more likely to make a false insurance claim than those who did not cheat (6% v. 2%).
- Gender: Males are twice as likely to inflate and insurance claim than females (4% v. 2%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are about as likely to file a false insurance claim as those who say religion is unimportant (3% v. 2%).
- Occupation:
Management-Private 5%
Sales 4%
Business owner 4%
Lawyer 3%
Real estate 3%
Percentage who were given too much change and kept the money in past year:
- Age: 17 or under (49%); 18-24 (31%); 25-40 (19%); 41-50 (18%); Over 50 (15%). About half of teens 17 and under kept change mistakenly given to them while twice as many young adults 18-24 kept the money than those over 50.
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are twice as likely to take advantage of a cahier’s mistake (32% v. 16%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are nearly twice as likely to keep change mistakenly given as those who did not cheat (29% v. 16%)
- Gender: Males and females are equally likely to keep change (18% v. 19%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are significantly less likely to take advantage of an error in change than those who say religion is unimportant (17% v. 23%).
- Occupation:
Media 31%
Clerical 24%
Sales 20%
Real estate 20%
Lawyer 19%
Engineer 17%
Educator 17%
Management-Public 16%
Management-Private 16%
Physician 15%
Banking 15%
Business owner 14%
Homemaker 13%
Law enforcement 11%
Percentage who made an unauthorized copy of software in past year:
- Age: 17 or under (34%); 18-24 (34%); 25-40 (27%); 41-50 (18%); Over 50 (14%). More than one of three respondents under 24 made illegal copies of software compared to less than half that in the over 50 category.
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are much more likely to illegally copy software than others (31% v. 18%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are much more likely to make unauthorized copies of software than those who did not cheat (29% v. 17%).
- Gender: Males are considerably more likely to copy software than females (24% v. 18%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to improperly copy software than those who say religion is unimportant (19% v. 24%)
Percentage who made an unauthorized copy of music or video in past year:
- Age: 17 or under (63%); 18-24 (69%); 25-40 (41%); 41-50 (27%); Over 50 (16%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are much more likely to make unauthorized copies of videos or music than others (45% v. 27%)
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are much more likely to than those who did not cheat (44% v. 25%)
- Gender: Males are more than females to make illegal copies of videos and music (32% v. 28%)..
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to make unauthorized copies than those who say religion is unimportant (28% v. 34%).
Percentage who concealed or distorted information on a significant matter when communicating with their boss in past year:
- Age: 17 or under (31%); 18-24 (19%); 25-40 (17%); 41-50 (11%); Over 50 (8%). Teens 17 or under are nearly four times as likely to deceive their boss than those over 50.
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are nearly two and a half times more likely to be dishonest to their boss (24% v. 10%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are twice as likely to be dishonest with their boss as those who did not cheat (20% v. 10%).
- Gender: Males and females deceive their bosses at essentially the same rate (13% v. 12%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are just as likely to be dishonest with their boss as those who say religion is unimportant (12%).
- Occupation:
Sales 21%
Management-Private 14%
Real estate 14%
Management-Public 13%
Lawyer 13%
Clergy 12%
Media 12%
Clerical 11%
Business owner 11%
Banking 11%
Educator 11%
Law enforcement 10%
Engineer 6%
Homemaker 5%
Percentage who lied to a client or customer about something significant in the past year:
- Age: 18-24 (18%); 25-40 (12%); 41-50 (8%); Over 50 (6%). People 18-24 are three times more likely to lie to a customer than those 50 or more (18% vs. 6%); 24-40 year olds were twice as likely to lie as those 50 or more (12% vs. 6%). Only 6% of those over 50 and 8% of those 41-50 lied to a client or customer about something significant in the past year.
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are three times more likely to lie to a customer or client (22% vs. 7%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are more than three times more likely to be dishonest to a customer than those who did not cheat (20% v. 6%).
- Gender: Males and females deceive their bosses at essentially the same rate (10% v. 9%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are just as likely to be dishonest with their customers as those who say religion is unimportant (9% v. 10%).
- Occupation:
Sales 22%
Business owner 13%
Clerical 11%
Lawyer 10%
Banking 9%
Management-Private 9%
Law enforcement 8%
Media 8%
Real estate 8%
Management-Public 7%
Educator 6%
Engineer 5%
Homemaker 5%
Percentage who misrepresented or omitted a material fact in a resume in the past 5 years:
- Age: 18-24 (15%); 25-40(10%); 41-50 (6%); Over 50 (5%)
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more than three times more likely to misrepresent themselves on a resume (17% vs. 5%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are more than twice as likely to lie or mislead on a resume than those who did not cheat (13% v. 6%).
- Gender: Males and females omit or misrepresent facts on a resume at essentially the same rate (8% v. 7%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to than those who say religion is unimportant to omit or misrepresent facts on a resume (6% v. 9%).
Percentage who misrepresented or omitted a material fact in a job interview in the past 5 years:
- Age: 18-24 (14%); 25-40 (9%); 41-50 (4%); Over 50 (4%). Teens and young adults are two to three times more likely to misrepresent or omit facts in a resume as those over 40 (14% and 9% v. 4%).
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are three times more likely to misrepresent or omit facts during a job interview than others (15% v. 5%)
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are three times more likely to misrepresent or omit facts in a job interview than those who did not cheat (12% v. 4%).
- Gender: Males and females omit or misrepresent facts during a job interview at essentially the same rate (7% v. 6%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are essentially as likely to be dishonest with their boss as those who say religion is unimportant (6% v. 7%).
Percentage who used the Internet for personal reasons for at least 15 minutes during work time in the past year:
- Age: 18-24 (53%); 25-40 (77%); 41-50 (69%); Over 50 (58%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more likely to use the Internet for personal purposes at work (69% v. 64%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are three times more likely to misuse the Internet at work than those who did not cheat (75% v. 62%).
- Gender: Males and females misuse the Internet at work at essentially the same rate (66% v. 64%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to use the Internet at work for personal purposes (65% v. 68%).
Percentage who provided a child with a false excuse for missing school:
- Age: 18-24 (17%); 25-40 (12%); 41-50 (17%); over 50 (14%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are much more likely to provide a false excuse than others (24% v. 14%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are substantially more likely to give a child a false excuse than those who did not cheat (20% v. 14%)
- Gender: Males are less likely than females to give a child a false excuse (11% v. 19%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to give a child a false excuse than those who say religion is unimportant (15% v, 18%).
Percentage who lied about a child’s age to save money:
- Age: 18-24 (21%); 25-40 (16%); 41-50 (17%); Over 50 (10%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more likely to than others.
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are nearly twice as likely to lie about a child’s age as those who did not cheat (25% v. 13%).
- Gender: Males are less likely to lie about a child’s age than females (13% v. 16%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are slightly less likely to lie about a child’s age than those who say religion is unimportant (15% v. 17%).
Percentage who asked a child to lie (e.g., "Tell grandma I’m not home") in the past year:
- Age: 18-24 (19%); 25-40 (13%); 41-50 (17%); Over 50 (12%).
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are twice as likely to ask a child to lie than others (26% v. 13%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are significantly more likely to ask a child to lie than those who did not cheat (20% v. 13%).
- Gender: Males are much less likely to ask a child to lie than females (10% v. 18%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are essentially as likely to lie about a child’s age as those who say religion is unimportant (15% v. 14%).
Percentage who lied in front of their child to get out of a difficult situation in the past year:
- Age: 18-24 (16%); 25-40 (18%); 41-50 (17%); Over 50 (12%).
- Attitude:Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more than twice as likely to lie in front of their children (27% v. 13%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are more likely to lie in front of their kids than those who did not cheat (21% v. 14%)
- Gender: Males are significantly less likely than females to lie in front of their children (11% v. 18%)
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to lie in front of their children than those who say religion is unimportant (13% v. 16%)
Percentage who misrepresented or omitted a fact on a tax return in the past 5 years:
- Age: 18-24 (7%); 25-40 (14%); 41-50 (13%); Over 50 (16%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally to succeed are more than one and a half times more likely to misrepresent or omit facts on a tax return (20% v. 13%).
- High School Cheating:Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are more likely to cheat on their taxes than those who did not cheat in school (18% v. 13%).
- Gender: Males are more likely cheat on their taxes than females (17% v. 12%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to misrepresent or omit facts on their tax returns than those who say religion is unimportant (13% v. 16%).
- Occupation:
Sales 22%
Business owner 22%
Real estate 21%
Engineer 21%
Banking 18%
Law enforcement 17%
Management-Private 16%
Lawyer 16%
Management-Public 14%
Educator 12%
Media 11%
Clerical 11%
Homemaker 8%
Percentage who were not completely honest in answering all questions on this survey:
- Age: 17 or under (24%); 18-24 (11%); 25-40 (7%); 41-50 (6%); Over 50 (6%). Teens 17 and under were twice as likely to lie on the survey as those over 50.
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are twice as likely to be dishonest on at least one question on the survey (12% v. 6%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are more likely to be dishonest on the survey than those who did not cheat (11% v. 6%).
- Gender: Males and females lied on this survey at the same rate (7%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are less likely to have been dishonest on this survey than those who say religion is unimportant (6% v. 9%).
SELF-IMAGE
Percentage who said they’re satisfied with their own ethics and character:
- Age: 17 or under (90%); 18-24 (94%); 25-40 (90%); 41-50 (91%); Over 50 (90%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are less likely to be satisfied with their own ethics and character than others (87% v. 91%).
- High School Cheating: Those who admitted cheating on exams in high school are somewhat less likely to than those who did not cheat to be satisfied with their own ethics and character (87% v. 91%).
- Gender: Males are less likely than females to be satisfied with their own ethics and character (87% v. 92%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion does not play an important role in their lives are just as likely to be satisfied with their own ethics and character as those who say religion is important (91%).
Percentage who said they are more ethical than most people they know:
- Age: 17 or under (64%); 18-24 (73%); 25-40 (71%); 41-50 (69%); Over 50 (67%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more likely to believe they are more ethical than most people they know (82% v. 76%).
- Gender: Males are more likely than females to believe they are more ethical than most people they know (80% v. 75%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are more likely to believe they are more ethical than most people they know than those who say religion is unimportant (78% v. 74%).
OTHER OPINIONS
Percentage who believe kids are more likely to lie, cheat, or steal today than they were 20 years ago:
- Age: 17 or under (85%); 18-24 (79%); 25-40 (69%); 41-50 (67%); Over 50 (70%). The vast majority of respondents of all ages believe that young people lie, cheat and steal more than previous generations but teens and young adults are considerably more likely to believe this than older adults.
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are more likely to think today’s kids are more dishonest (79% v. 69%).
- Gender: Males are slightly less likely to think kids today are more dishonest than 20 years ago (69% v. 71%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are more likely to believe today’s kids lie and cheat more than previous generations than those who say religion is unimportant (72% v.69%).
Percentage who believe schools should be more active in seeking to instill core ethical values like honesty, responsibility, and respect, and in developing good character in children:
- Age: 17 or under (86%); 18-24 (92%); 25-40 (90%); 41-50 (92%); Over 50 (93%)
- Attitude: Those who believe one has to lie or cheat at least occasionally in order to succeed are only slightly less likely to favor character education (90% vs. 92%)
- Gender: Males and females believe in active character education (92%).
- Religious Beliefs: People who say religion plays an important role in their lives are slightly more in favor of character and values education (93% vs. 90%).
The Josephson Institute of Ethics created an online survey instrument to assess adult behavior regarding common issues of integrity and to determine the impact of age, cynical attitudes about honesty, and high school character. One goal was to determine whether there is a meaningful predictive relationship between attitudes and conduct in high school and subsequent adult behavior.
The survey was conducted online in 2009. Almost 7,000 persons filled out the survey, a self-reported assessment instrument. Because of this, it is not a random, stratified sample of the U.S. population. The methodology and analysis were reviewed by Dr. Rick Hesse, D.Sc., Professor of Decision Sciences, Department Chair, Decision Sciences & Marketing, Graziadio School of Business & Management (GSBM), Pepperdine University. Dr. Hesse concluded that:
The large size of the population surveyed and the absence of any corrupting factors in the sampling and collection of the data justifies the conclusion that certain valid conclusions can be drawn from the responses. I examined the sampling process for indications of sampling bias and concluded that the conscientious efforts of the Institute to acquire responses from a broad and diverse population generated a sample permitting meaningful and useful comparisons and conclusions. Examining the data at progressive intervals of 2000 revealed a level of consistency supporting the conclusion that there was no material bias in the sampling.
Because sample sizes varied in certain demographic categories the confidence interval for reported results varies somewhat. Thus, depending on the comparison cited, the confidence intervals range between 95% and 99%. The accuracy of the data is within +/-1.57% for a 99% confidence interval and within +/-1.20% for a 95% confidence interval.